Common clinical cases at the clinic

More young dogs (puppies and juveniles) than older ones, mainly Alsatian or mongrel breed were presented for treatment. Previous dog demographic studies reported similar results [23,24,25]. In developing countries, the burden of infectious diseases and hence, mortalities is highest amongst puppies and juvenile dogs [4, 25]. Therefore, developing expertise in veterinary neonatology and paediatrics should be emphasised amongst practitioners in Uganda.

In the current study, most dogs were presented for elective surgery, especially spay and neuter surgeries. Elective sterilization of pets is the commonest procedure in general veterinary practice [26, 27]. Unlike in human reproductive health, operative surgery is the most applied method for pet birth control [26]. Clinical practices should be adequately equipped to offer safe and effective spay neuter surgeries as a major veterinary service to communities in and around Kampala.

Besides spay/neuter procedures, elective tail docking (amputation) was routinely perfumed in puppies. Tail docking is a controversial subject in veterinary practice but is still routinely performed on certain breeds, especially the Rottweiler, Doberman and the South African Boerboel [28]. It is a common practice in Africa due to an increasing influx of traditionally docked breeds [28]. Unfortunately, docking is often done without due considerations for management of post-operative pain and asepsis [28, 29]. Elective tail docking is thus, banned in many European countries [30]. Therefore, concerned authorities should consider evaluating the effects of docking on pet welfare and institute policy advice on this otherwise widespread practice accordingly.

Of the infectious conditions, parvo virus infection was the commonest amongst dogs brought for treatment. Indeed, parvovirusis is today one of the most important pathogens of the wild, feral and domestic canine populations [31,32,33]. This study has demonstrated that parvo virus infection is today a major dog health problem in Uganda. There is thus, a need to emphasise timely vaccination of puppies against the virus.

Dermatitis was the other common infectious condition in dogs presented for treatment. In small animal practice, skin conditions constitute at least 20% of cases seen, some of which are zoonotic [34,35,36,37]. Client education on associated public health risks is thus, essential. Another infectious disease seen in dogs across age groups was babesiosis. Indeed, canine babesiosis is a common infection in many parts of Africa [38, 39]. It is therefore, advisable that clinicians in this region should always include bebesiosis in differential diagnosis of febrile conditions of dogs. Equally, veterinary practitioners should always encourage pet owners to keep dogs free of tick infestation.

Fractures and tumours, especially transmissible venereal tumour (TVT) were the common non-infectious conditions recorded. Studies elsewhere have reported much lower prevalence of fractures in dogs presented for treatment [40, 41]. The clinic at Makerere is relatively well equipped referral facility that receive complicated cases, including fractures for specialised case management. Oncology and orthopaedics are advanced surgical specialty not often offered in general practices, thus referral to better equipped facilities [42, 43]. Implicitly, orthopaedic clinical service needs to be further developed and promoted through improved training and equipment provision by veterinary authorities in Uganda.

Common symptoms and the clinical outcomes in dogs

Diarrhoea, vomiting, fever, lameness, loss of appetite and jaundice were the common symptoms in dogs brought for treatment. Most of these are signs of systemic infectious conditions [44]. Vomiting, anorexia (inappetence) and diarrhoea in dogs are common signs of gastroenteritis [44, 45]. The major causes of gastroenteritis include helminthosis (parasitic gastroenteritis) and infections especially with parvovirus, rotavirus and sometimes campylobacter [45, 46]. From these symptoms, it is evident that infection, especially gastroenteritis is the leading cause of morbidity of dogs attending the small animal clinic, Makerere University, Kampala. Infection control through routine prophylactic measures including vaccination and deworming could significantly improve pet health and general welfare in Uganda.

Most dogs that died exhibited diarrhoea, vomiting, fever and jaundice. Gastrointestinal symptoms (vomiting, inappetence etc.) and fever increase the risk of severe illness or even death in patients [47,48,49]. Indeed, vomiting, appetite loss, fever and dehydration which could lead to shock are clinically used as predictors of disease severity or even mortality [47]. These findings could thus, be useful in development of standard critical care practice guidelines for pets and other animals in Uganda.

Up to 12% of dogs, especially puppies died during treatment at the clinic. Actually, puppy deaths are common in kennels and small animal practices [50]. Puppies often die within 12 weeks of birth, especially from gastroenteritis [4, 51, 52]. Improved management of individual litters through better hygiene and prophylactic measures could greatly minimize mortality of puppies.

Euthanasia was performed mainly in adult dogs diagnosed with liver dysfunction or neoplasms. Pet owners usually request for euthanasia for dogs presented with old-age associated neoplasms [53,54,55]. This is different from the current study where liver dysfunction was the leading indication for euthanasia. The leading cause of liver failure in dogs is aflatoxin poisoning [56, 57]. Over 80% of commercial feeds in Kampala have aflatoxin levels beyond recommended limits [58]. There is thus, a compelling need for a good strategy to monitor and control aflatoxin contamination in animal food and feeds.

Death was most common (70%) in dogs (puppies) clinically diagnosed with parvo virus infection. Canine parvovirus enteritis (CPE) has become an important problem to dog population worldwide. Fatality can be as high as 90% for untreated cases [59]. The disease is widespread and endemic across Africa with reported sero-prevalence of 80–90% [60]. In Uganda however, there is still a dearth of literature on epidemiology and the clinical impact of canine parvovirus enteritis. Like earlier stated, our findings however has demonstrated that canine parvovirus enteritis is highly prevalent in Uganda and that, it is a major cause morbidity and mortality in puppies. Thus, there is a need for sensitisation of veterinarians and dog owners on the status and importance of vaccination against this disease.